The Shining Light of Hope in An Endless Black Sky

“The Shadow”, written by Danish author Hans Christian Andersen, follows the protagonist, a learned man, who loses his identity and becomes subservient to his shadow. The story deals with complex themes of reversal of fortunes and the inexorable process of submission as the learned man (who represents the modern artist) becomes “overshadowed” by a monster of his own making. He wrote this story to categorize the lights and darkness, which play a pivotal role in driving the story. The good light is the poetry’s glow while the bad light is the sun rays. The good darkness is the one that holds inspiration like a clam shell while the bad darkness is the shadow itself. Andersen uses allegories and symbolisms in this Romantic work to show the power art and people have over an artist’s life in the post-Enlightenment Era. He does this by using a variety of light-spectrum imagery to showcase creative fears and erase illusions of acceptance. Andersen conclusively wants his readers to choose the type of light and darkness (which constantly battle) that he views as serving the best interest of the artist.

Andersen used unmistakably variant sizes of the shadow to highlight the dominance of an artist by his work. He also makes allegorical references to slow progression of submission to show the inherently animalistic nature of art over artist. The shadow is an allegory for the artist’s work. In the story, it is said “Light was brought (lamp light) …stretched itself all the way…how long it made itself” and “stretch in order to gain strength” (Andersen 141). There are references to a new shadow emerging after the loss of the old one, which is described to be “respectable” and so big that “half of it would have been enough” (144). There are many allusions to height, size and strength made in the above paragraph, and in a sense, this evokes primal or natural ideas about domination of prey by predator (a larger entity over a smaller one). Size is related to strength, and further strength is related or creates respect, and Andersen was not being subtle about this idea because he literally uses these words in “The Shadow” to show the dominatingly ominous nature of the shadow creeping slowly towards the learned man’s life. The learned man’s true art was meant to be the books he wrote to document his travels, but the untrue art in the form of the shadow became more influential and relevant to the learned man, rendering his true art meaningless. Andersen juxtaposed the growth of the shadow size and shrinking of the man plagues in illnesses, again to bring out physical qualities in these characters. Giving the shadow these physical qualities draws it out of the meta-physical realm and tells audiences the severity and reality of the now physical threat faced by the learned man. Also, allusions to nature of one predator replacing another is made when a new shadow forms, showing that in the wild, there is no escape from “death”, both in the literal and figurative sense (death of career). The currency of respectability in the story world is the size of the man’s shadow, and any rational man would want to increase this size and be willing to submit to another to achieve this goal. Andersen used this personification for the shadow to give it a human-like identity and show the conversion of the conventional roles initially played by the two characters. The shadow acts as the new replacing the old, and this is Andersen telling his readers how fame and relevance is fleeting in the literary world, and all that remains after the artist’s death is their work. This is further reinforced the increasing submission by the master to the shadow.

For the steady submission process, the story explicitly mentioned “And so they travelled: the shadow was now the master, and the master was now the shadow” (149) The learned man’s nature was described as “kindhearted, gentle and friendly” (149) and the ability for each other to call them by their first name (a right eventually taken away from the learned man). Slow progression meant that Andersen wanted the reader to see a series of small pictures, just like the learned man, before seeing the big picture of the ultimate transfer of authority to the shadow, and most of these allegedly “small moments” were unavoidable (even the learned man couldn’t foresee what was happening). This change in role stripped the learned man of his identity, and this could be entirely attributed to the nature of the man. Andersen perhaps attempted to create an Adam and Eve idea where the learned man is naïve and unsuspecting who is worthy of the reader’s sympathy. The shadow is the tempting snake who has gained the forbidden fruit of knowledge and uses it to impose his will on others. The word “real master” (149) shows the sudden change from the trance-like state where the shadow was gaining power to the hard reality that completed this transition and shows that although the learned man may continue considering himself as the master, it is now a universally hollow title. This “reversal of fortunes” theme alludes to how works of artist force them to compromise on their life and preferences for the sake and benefit of their work, and toil under its power and influence. A lot of fear and pain is needed for creating art works, and many create their own pain to succeed in meeting public expectations and avoiding alienation.

Andersen shows his fears and worries of estrangement and alienation of talented artist in foreign communities by highlighting the powerful sun symbol and constructing a nightmarish environment. The sun represents the power of people, and its overpowering strength delineates how this power can result in alienation of the powerless (in this case the learned man). The story narrates that “(learned man) thought that he could run around freely just as…home…learned otherwise” (141), and his trip to the foreign hot countries were described to be “unbearable…felt he was sittings, red hot oven” (141). All the doors were kept closed by the locals and the sun was shown to take a toll on both him and even his shadow. This shows that the learned man, in spite of being young and knowledgeable, is nevertheless a stranger or an outcast in this new land he finds himself at the beginning. Dominating the entire region here is the sun, that is all-powerful and all-encompassing. The brutal descriptions for the sun show how overbearing and malicious this seemingly radiant entity really is. The allusion to oven shows that the artist is merely lifeless and insignificant as a piece of food, like fuel to power the shadow. The people were extremely reserved and uninviting to the learned man, and this made him a little lost. The closed doors are allegorically representing closed arms or hearts, so is rather awkwardly unapproachable. This entire portion of the story paints an almost hostile environment, as if the learned man were sent to a foreign/extraterrestrial environment like Mars. Even the sun, meant to represent warmth and comfort, seems to elude him by appearing distant and icy. And all this hostility shows the true isolation of a man who’s only company now is his shadow.  All this evidence from previous and current claims has logically led me to believe in the formation of a power ranking scale which is as follows: Sun > Shadow > Learned man. He uses this allegory of the sun to represent the scrutinizing light placed upon the artist in the form of modern fanfare. The shadow exists (has relevance) only when the light shines on it, and so long as people care about it. Without this light, writers become disoriented and slip into obscurity. Many artists like the learned man want acceptance and, in not getting this, they become desperate and change their behavior in line with their art. The art is well received and accepted (celebrated in fact). They define themselves limitedly in the scope of their art as opposed to becoming their own person. This compels the artist to turn towards a darkness unlike that of the shadow – one that holds inspiration – so that he may achieve acceptance.

Andersen believes that darkness can be both good and bad, depending on where it comes from and how you seek it. The two sources of darkness are people and art. People characterize the sun and shadow, the bad things in the world. Art characterizes the light and darkness for inspiration from poetry, the good things in the world. The story describes the neighbor’s house to be “dark inside”, from which came out poetry appearing with “strange radiance” and she was “glowing…sight dazzled his eyes”. His problem in attempting to observe this “magnificent…imagined” beauty would be easy “if…not been so much sun” (142,3). The darkness of art is meant to represent the inspiration that comes from unpredictable sources of pain and the summation of an artist’s life experiences. This is a “good” darkness, and lack of this darkness can leave artist uninspired and become the creative’s greatest fear. The “bad” darkness is the shadow that comes from people (as represented by the sun symbol) and so is more of a “pseudo-darkness”. Andersen contrast the harsh sunlight to the warm, inviting glow of inspiration to show how inspiration creates and completes an artist while fan-service destroys and leaves them nothing behind (like a scavenger eating even the carcass). The poetry, in the story, inspires the learned man for only he can see and appreciate its radiant beauty, something that was inaccessible for both the neighbors and the shadow itself. The sunlight appears to act as a hindrance for inspiration, preventing artist from appreciating real, bona fide ideas. The flowers are an allegory for the nurturing nature of inspiration to create and grow (almost maternal). These descriptions, including “the most beautiful colors” (142), emphasize Andersen’s resolute preference for poem as a dying art form that he considered was diverse and vibrant in its true and pure form. This duality of darkness and light shows that inspiration is vital for any artist to make a self-satisfying work of art, and what Andersen believes is the purity that all must pursue with curiosity and courage. Andersen wants us to pursue this good darkness, and hence the warm light for he believes that this is the right path for any artist starting their career. But unfortunately, Andersen fears that many people let the darkness of people dictate terms in their lives and kind of work they produce, and this causes the death of inspiration and originality.

As seen and interpreted from “The Shadow”, Andersen expresses his frustrations and anger from having felt betrayed by the literary environment of art that surrounded him in the European post-Enlightenment Era. Andersen spent much of his early years living in the shadow of other artistic creatives such as Simon Melsing and competing for acceptance in the Collins Family. He also searched for acceptance in him being Danish, and this could hint to the role of the outsider as seen in this story. He was aware of the two major influences in his life at the time – people around him and the art he produced. He described poetry to be one of the purest forms of art during the post-Enlightenment era. Light imagery was a creative way to show these influences and change in circumstances by physically altering the effects of light throughout the story. And possibly from what I interpret, Andersen realized that the light he really wanted to seek didn’t come from the people (for it was criticized in this story) but from inspiration and art which was glorified in “The Shadow”. All other lights and darks were mere distractions and temptations preventing Andersen from finding his light of hope (inspiration) in a cruel, dark world of criticism and hate.

Yamasaki, Lisa. “Week 1 Romanticism_Andersen_Storytelling2_18.” UCLA, Haines Hall, Los Angeles, CA.  28 June, 2018.

Andersen, Hans Christian.  “The Shadow” Tales and Stories by Hans Christian Andersen.  Trans. Patricia L. Conroy & Sven H. Rossel.  Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1982.  141-153. Print. 

Can Artistic Expression co-exist with Economic Promise?

Edvard Munch, a Norwegian expressionist painter, was born in 1863. His works are described to best represent Expressionism, Fauvism and Surrealism. Munch uses exaggerated and controversial subjects, powerful experimentation of colors, and clear distinctions between art and nature as being opposite to bring his art alive. This distinction helped him create paintings to criticize the role of industrialization on nature through his art. In order to keep art alive in a society that threatened this substitution, Munch used a range of colors, swirling effects, designated infrastructure placement, and unique characters in two of his paintings, Anxiety and Scream, to help paint the dismal and hellish portrait of a rapidly urbanizing and industrializing early 1900’s European society. People and occupations threatened to substitute the creative with the mechanical and artificial. This resulted in Expressionism becoming the medium to show the tough choices faced by both artists and society.

The uniqueness of the characters in both paintings attempts to highlight the two conflicting sides Munch observed: the artists and an occupationally-driven society. He used distinct features and subtle differences to position both characters in the same situation, hence leading me to conclude they exist in the same realm, the artist and society are literally facing off one another. The sole character in Scream almost looks sexless to show his potential in being anybody. However, this generic human characterization is juxtaposed with surrealist anatomy that makes him alienish and unrealistic. He carries an unusually oblong face outstretched by an open mouth with exaggeratedly large hands which are non-adhering to the hand-to-face size ratio. He is uniquely dressed in a black robe. The expression on his face is one of shock and agony, and having read of Munch, one could argue that he has attempted to portray the inside of his mind (as seen in the figure representing possibly the skull and the internal body) to show his exasperation to an increasingly industrialized world failing to appreciate art. This is evidenced in in the exaggerated expressions and huge mouth cavity, to reflect the sound of an unearthly, internal scream that haunted Munch’s own mind in his attempt to find a place for art. The Scream character has a flowing nature (his robes fade into the background) like those of creative minds letting ideas flow, as opposed to the rigidness of the Anxiety characters. In Anxiety, they appear to be wearing formal, occupational clothes which represent a Victorian wardrobe indistinguishable from one another (black hats and black shirts). This serves in causing a loss of unique identity (unlike Scream who blends in easily). They all share the same fatigued and miserably angry look, and the irony is that these recognizable clearly defined humans (with appropriate body structures) seem mechanically robotic and almost soulless in their expressionless eyes. In comparison, the alien like scream character, who in spite of not being human, conveys more emotions and soul.

The people at the back have been painted to be so irrelevant that Munch just decided to make them faceless, like a sea of monotonous people. These are meant to represent the general society (a non-unique mob of lookalikes with no distinct features). Looking at the Scream

character is funnier because his magnified emotions and abnormal hand gestures relate to a pantomime artist who uses physical movements to communicate and make people laugh (so this character looks like an entertainer in a circus). The mob in Anxiety are simply tragic because their emotions and mechanically inhuman movements show a soulless walk towards an unhappy destination like death and suffering. This coupled with the use of black for garments symbolically brings out a “funeral element” from Anxiety, like an inevitably time for mourning and loss of something important (happiness is dead, not a person). Also, placement of character implies subliminal ideas. The Scream character, devoid of other people around him, can come to represent artist freedom and movement (walking down his own path). This is contrasted with the tightly packed hordes of people in Anxiety represents rigidity, social criticism (hence less freedom), and more uninspired-like robots down an assembly line. These expressions and characteristics can be held parallel to how each of these conflicting sides view one another in criticism. The artist sees this new industrialized society as dead ghosts who are marching in unison with nothing setting them apart and lack creativity and inspiration. Looking at their eyes, one can see they appear merely as dots to show the fatigued nature of society that’s miserable in its own existence. Society, meanwhile, looks at artists as these frustrated, mad-men aliens and isolated freaks who fail to fit into their regimen. Although the characters are fascinating, they truly appear striking owing to Munch’s erudite use of colors to convey agony, pain and other emotions implicitly.

Munch’s decided to use red and orange shades of color to create absolute hell as a critique for the depressing and polluted environment with clouds that cause an absence of the sun. This is meant to highlight the impact of industrial productions on the living circumstance for people, and the lack of a familiar sun signals descendent into darkness of a long night. True to both paintings, we can see that the sky is predominantly red and orange which are allegorically represent biblical hell. It is nearly 30-40% of the canvas area. There is an ominous tone to the alarming sensation in the form of an intrinsic unease in all the characters as felt in Anxiety and Scream. The blatant use of red is really harsh for viewers to look at the painting for longer times. This is related to one of the quotes made by Munch which said the “sky turned red as blood”, and that he heard the “infinite scream of nature”. This interestingly brings to Munch’s genius of knowing that paintings can’t produce sound so how does one do justice to a painting called Scream. Munch used the red to tell his viewers that the screaming sound of agony is not just coming from the Scream character (artist) but nature itself. Munch believed that “art is not nature”, and that art came from inside of the human mind, while nature resided outside. The red is the pollution and destruction of nature caused by human’s industrial activities, and the Earth is actually the one screaming, not just the Scream character. The use of red is meant to evoke the pains of seeing blood, or the sunset that ends the day, leaving a pessimistic feeling. Knowing from the timeline of the painting, Munch understood that art and nature are two distinctly separate things. But this industrialization has affected both the inside and the outside (one in tormenting the artist’s sanity in making them irrelevant and the other in destroying nature). It signals a pessimistic attitude to change in nature of both man and external nature, for neither

was safe, and that this could in the early 1900s led to an all-out war (World War 1) for man had become part of a soulless mob. The only things familiar and too positively powerful to destroy was the sun, but the sooty clouds and smoke have covered the sky in faint red glow and the sun is no longer visible, making everyone disoriented and pursue bad decisions.

The sun is meant to represent goodness, warmth and positivity in an eternal cycle. Unlike a good warmth, the tone of the painting holds an unkind, distant warmth because the glow of the sky is crimson red as opposed to blue or yellow. In Kandinsky’s theory, blue and yellow are more positive colors with blue representing calmness and clarity while yellow represents a lively color whose excessive usage could be harsh. The predominant red color scheme mimics the end stage of a dying star that went from being the yellow main sequence (like our Sun currently), to a red-giant about to explode. This expected explosion allegorically shows the explosion of conflict between the artist and society, that could lead to death of either or both. This death like atmosphere sets up a depressing mood and the abandonment of man by nature, causing pessimists at the time to turn to art (as a means to replace the beauty of nature being destroyed) to gain some optimism, or at least document how things were. This is one of the important reasons why Munch could have decided to try and create Expressionism as an answer to this pessimism. It appears the world is entering a period of darkness and long night. The Sun is meant to represent a refuge of hope, faith and a purity symbol. However, its apparent absence takes both these things away from the audience. Allegorically, this lack of warmth radiating from the sun shows a lack of cordial warmth that fellow humans hold for one another as they become steely cold. While the sun is absent, what is uniquely present in the sky is actually swirling effects like the wind that appear to move.

The swirling motions in the sky and water tend to portray the dynamisms and fluidity of life that does not stop for anyone in an increasing industrializing world. This fluidity represents the role of water in maritime trade and colonial power expansion in the industrial era. These swirling effects create a sense of motion in still-paintings (as if the background is constantly shifting). This is meant to represent the rapid changes in technology causing time to pass really fast while making days longer and lives shorter. This flow could possibly represent the flow of time, and also alternatively and more simply just the fluid nature of water. Water has a sense of dynamism about it as seen in the smooth, parabolic curves for water that create a motion effect in a still painting (as juxtaposed to the rigidity of characters in Anxiety). The flowing nature is meant to evoke calmness in viewers and the blue scheme used is meant to juxtapose the harsh reds of the sky. Munch wanted to represent water in both his paintings to parallel ships and trade commercialization. In the middle top of both paintings behind the characters, one can see the outline of these ships that were the main source of European globalization at the time of the formation of changing cultural and economic capitals. These ships are also surrounded by water that is unmissably red and yellow (light from a hidden sun), and this symbolism relates to that of a spotlight on the most important performer on the metaphorical global trade stage (in this case

the ships). As seen in many history books, most cities were formed close to water bodies, and this could tell us that all these characters on the bridge are trapped in a smoky, polluted metropolitan, with complete detachment from nature and the natural. Their only escape is to leave on one of those boats, for the water seems more inviting then either the bridge or the sky. While the water is free flowing, the bridge is static and has no clear ends, and yet it is uniquely the place where characters find themselves in both paintings to represent the choice of punishment and rewards as faced.

The positioning of the bridge is allegorical to how people can change their circumstances in an era where social status could easily be changed (technology acting as a bridge) from poverty to wealth and pain. The idea of a bridge restricts subjects to a defined geographical region, thereby limiting their options. It makes it more compact and creates a sense of urgency and powerlessness for the Scream. While the sky is predominantly red and the water is mostly blue, the bridge has a mix of these two colors to show its shifting nature and creating moving effects, substituting alternating colors for swirling motions to achieve this effect. This bridge is basically hidden in Anxiety, showing the resistance the masses possess to not only appreciate the flow of art but also to show the inequality and competition for space, money and power societies faced in the industrial age (there is not enough space for everyone on the bridge). As much as the bridge connects the artist and the society, it is also the object that is separating them. For Munch, this bridge could allegorically represent “flow”, and indicates the transition period from Realism and Impressionism to Expressionism in a mad, mad world of shifting status of art and people due to jobs and technology. Munch, who loved art, is shocked to see that this bridge (representing industrial technology) that has allowed for the pursuit of wealth and improvements in status quo, has also taken intangible things from people like the safety (job security), sanity of the artist and the happiness of the masses. This is seen in never-ending length of the bridge, like something going on forever which to cross would drive someone insane and that happiness and wealth on the other end are hence an unachievable goal. And while in Anxiety it is apparent that the crowd is marching onwards, in Scream the character’s decision still stands to be made, and this could parallel Munch’s own life in deciding whether to continue pursuing art or becoming faceless yes-man, nothing more than a unit in society just like the zombie-like horde about to engulf the Scream. This is evidenced in the similarity of backgrounds, light tones and color schemes that makes it appear as if the two sets of characters are facing off one another. The presence of faceless people in Scream can show that they exist in the same realm, and the fact that Munch painted these paintings merely a year apart not only brings an artistic but also a temporal connection. In addition, all the major features form the basis of both paintings, and all this information leads me to believe that Scream and Anxiety are not two separate works but when placed side by side, represent the same bridge, and the choice on either end of that bridge that the Scream character has to make. The paintings are the two distinct outcomes or responses of Munch to the same situation involving the inevitable technological domination of society’s life and culture. He can either choose to react as the Scream character (the conventional artist) does, which is to resist society cracking down on artists that lead to him

being driven insane, and as a rebellious act can continue pursuing art and introduce Expressionism. His other option is to assimilate himself with society and join their soulless ghost army in an emotionless and painful journey along the bridge in pursuit of painful wealth that is not guaranteed, resulting in him becoming a part of a cold, cruel world.

Munch used his paintings to display his frustrations about the changing times he found himself trapped in deciding to choose between his true passion for art and becoming a part of society. Coming from a poor family, one could understand why he viewed wealth as being important, but he also realized that it could not lead to happiness. His work inspired him, and if this meant to oppose society, he would have gladly done that. His self-reflections prompted him to change from society norms of impressionist art, to taking risks and popularizing expressionist art along with Van Gogh and a few others who share similar art-styles. He wanted to walk down his own path, and so he continued painting what he loved, and allowed money to come, if at all, only as a consequence for he believed that the industrialized society could have led to the death of art had this transition in styles not occurred lead by Munch. And so, art continued to transform into new future styles and survive these dark periods of economic and geo-political turmoil, adapting to the times just like the water and sky moving.

Charlie Chaplin during Great Depression: Life of a lover, tramp, worker, actor

INTRODUCTION

CHARLES SPENCER CHAPLIN was born on 16th April 1889 in London into the “poorest class in England” with nothing to inherit. His Vaudeville father abandoned him as an infant. The failure of his mother as a musical comedy artist forced him into acting to support family and the rest is history.

With a career spanning nearly 75 years, his life is a series of all-time highs to controversies which eventually caused him to fade out until he passed away in 1977 from a stroke.

Chaplin knew what it was to be born into poverty and barely had “any chances”. His respect for the poor is epitomized by his portrayal as the “Tramp” (admiration for the ordinary man with unfaltering energy to survive, resilience, integrity, and humanity), which became the most recognizable character in the world. Chaplin’s films were moving biographies with overlaps of social cognizance and he used great skills of pantomime to highlight these emotions.

By working with Keystone Studios in America to becoming a worldwide icon, and being considered an integral part of the film industry, Chaplin became wealthy and lived a life of luxury and fame in his later years. He was financially independent and a perfectionist.

Despite being the richest man in Hollywood, Charlie Chaplin cared about the welfare of the poor during the Great Depression by exploring the patronizing divisions of the inherently illogical class systems through his films and dynamic characters like the Tramp.

BODY

During the era of the Great Depression, things were very bleak as people had lost all their fortunes, some below poverty who were finding it hard even to survive. Full-time workers were reduced to part-time. On a “Black Thursday” in October 1929, the stock market crashed due to failure of big banks[1]. At such grave times, Charlie Chaplin came to prominence as a source of relief. Chaplin’s character: The Tramp was a classic figure. A bumbling yet good-natured man, he wore a pair of baggy pants, a tight coat, a bowler hat, shoes torn and too big, small wooden cane and the trapezoid mustache. Chaplin tailor-made these opposites in appearance. He lived from place to place, not thriving but just surviving and was a living testament to the “hobos” created during the Depression as people lost their homes, their money and some even their family.

He was created during the Progressive Era (1900-1920), a time when many middle-class Americans called for socio-political reforms and activism against the corruption by big-city machines and busting of large corporation which eventually lead to the Depression. This era focused on improving the social lives of the unprivileged which were affected by urbanization and immigration. Chaplin became especially famous when there was gloom post WW1.

Chaplin's Tramp emanates a pathos, thereby synthesizing the comedian’s desire to make audiences laugh and to help forget their social responsibilities/troubles due to conditions during the Depression era. The tramp’s perspective is that work and exploitation are merely synonyms for one another. Tramp courts disaster only to transcend, expresses inherent beauty, talent, dignity for people outside the privileged social order. He essentially has no malice for inflicted pain/oppression, and somehow by the end he receives a spiritual victory. Chaplin wanted to instill goodness in people during the dark times of the Depression.

A prime example of this is Modern Times (1936) – a satirical slapstick comedy to criticize the factory system portraying the realistic image of America in economic crisis. Shumyatsky argued that Chaplin’s made films with the common theme of “the tragedy of a bourgeoisie in capitalist society”[2]. This film would go on to become the very last film to feature the Little Tramp character. Chaplin wanted to subtly remind the banks and the people about the chaos caused by the economic systematic failure, resulting in rebelling/revolts, protests, strikes, starvation. Chaplin heavily criticized unemployment and American capitalism replacing manual labor[3]. He has even expressed his grievance of India’s rapid industrialization after meeting Gandhi, saying that machinery must free men from bondage of slavery by improving their life and help them enjoy life[4]. Following these principles, Modern Times was made free of the studio system, bankers/industrialists or any external sources. In the 30s, many films feature socialites with jewels, furs and extravagant riches, and as such Modern Times was an unprecedented act of political defiance against a failed economic system.  

Chaplin’s films like Work (1915), City Lights (1931), and Modern Times were silent films with only machine sounds. This was done to dehumanizing workers - thereby suggesting that workers had no say in their destinies. Most of his films call for compassion by having an absence of it, particularly Modern Times, thereby reinstating pathos for audiences. As Motion Picture magazine had rightly said: “Chaplantis” had arrived. Chaplin believed crime is a consequence of poverty[5]. In Modern Times, he discusses substance abuse that was rampant after the Depression by people who lost everything and eventually overdosed and died. He does this by pantomiming the effects of cocaine through facial expressions, eye-movements, nose reddening and parched lips to indicate an alert sense, hence making the shy, timid tramp to a bold masculine making foolish decisions of bravery, eventually self-harming himself.

The “Tramp” perhaps is one of Chaplin’s most successful characters that helped influence the masses. During the Depression, many people were displaced from jobs and a general sense of questionable masculinity plagued. For audiences at the time, a modest attainment meant more than a punchline - it provided them with a resolution since the most of them underwent similar problems, which would strike a chord and help find solace. Focusing the Tramp for the movie Modern Lights, Chaplin specifically made this film in response to the Depression. In it, Chaplin wanted to dramatize how workers can descend into joblessness and homelessness. The Tramp is portrayed to be an unskilled, ubiquitous and illiterate. He represents the average American who was ill-suited for an Industrialized America. He believes in the equality of all men irrespective of where one comes from. The Tramp lives nowhere and everywhere simultaneously as work is portrayed negatively as Chaplin was largely critical of poor working conditions that troubled common-man at the time. This is meant to be “Chaplin Everyman”[6] who rather than being a leader or social reformer, is a simple man looking to survive and preserve himself with the basic necessities in life, no greed is present. Irrespective of what role Chaplin plays: inmate, dictator, singing waiter, the central personality of a Tramp exists. Critics like Charmion Von Wiegand praised Modern Times to be expressionism of social upheaval at its finest[7].

For Chaplin’s Tramp, there is a general lack of nostalgia as he depicts the life of a worker facing problems via capitalism in a Depression. The Tramp lacks the mandatory skills and qualities needed to fit into a dominant masculine society, and stereotypes included working man, organization man and empire builder. Chaplin balanced both light and darker themes to educate audiences about the happenings. The humor is created by the Tramp being clueless by experimenting and being experimented on by machines (a dark theme that was prevalent in the 1930s as conspiracies spread of the government conducting unsolicited human tests)[8]. The Tramp’s comical acts blurs the social conventions involving gender norms and corporate productivity. During the depression, the masculinity and femininity were considered distinct and independent of one another due to introduction of machinery and any man incapable of participating in industrialization loses himself as a person and needs to be cured to gain back his masculinity[9]. These gender gaps created massive conflicts and opened doors to violence and sexism. However, it has also seen that if the Tramp wants it, he is quite capable as seen in The Police (1916), when he cracks an icebox like a safe.

Chaplin wanted to help people find their place in the modern world of industrial progress in the 30s and he does this through Modern Times via his interwoven depiction of technology-as-boon and technology-as-curse and contrasting views satisfied multiple perspectives and informed people of new ideas. Chaplin’s Tramp is an ordinary man who is neither pro or anti-technology He is simply a personality who is bored of a life of regimentation. While in most of his films, all other characters are shown to be robotic, he is the one who embodies the emotions of a human being. The Tramp wants to be useful, has exhilarating energy, enjoys childish play and lethargy, thereby reminding the audiences on how technology can become our eventual master and the chaotic consequences through the actions one considers inconsequential[10]. Chaplin highlights the massive divide between the rich and poor in City Lights through the portrayal of a Tramp failing to get a woman who seeks rich men.  Chaplin had essentially created pantomime as a global language as emotions, quirks, actions and comical theatrics were universally comprehended. Soon, as the Tramp figure became famous, many small artists started imitating this in vaudevilles and films. Chaplin’s Progressive-era themed films can be divided into five primary sub-genres: Urban corruption, Plight of urban poor, the Rich, Elitism and Alcoholism[11]. He had turned more of a philosopher than an actor in the 1930s. Chaplin had voyaged around the world as a part of his City Lights tour, wherein being exposed to the Global Depression, Chaplin began to formulate his own economic theories. Einstein even complimented him saying that he wasn’t a comedian but actually an economist[12].

Charlie Chaplin’s creation of United Artist with other high-profile stars like Mary Pickford, DW Griffith and Douglas Fairbanks in 1919 meant greater autonomy and control over the studio system rather than commercial studios influencing them. The Great Depression had caused a slow-down in numerous industries, which mean by 1931 nearly thirty million people had lost their jobs, devastating middle-class and working-class people[13]. As this chaotic drama ensued in America, only the film industry was perhaps resilient to the sluggish economy. Nearly sixty to eighty million Americans went to the films once or more than once a week as a source of distraction from the bleak reality. At such times, United Artists created jobs for people as they had employed thousands of people for their films. In addition, Chaplin also created a subgenre of comedy called “dramedy”[14] which was a mixture of comedy and drama, thereby creating more opportunities for himself and fellow artists to make more films and break down social distinctions by inviting people from all classes to enjoy his film.     

CONCLUSION

The use of Depression themes and posing dilemmas that American workers suffered, films like Modern Times, The Great Dictator and City Lights inspired backlash. Chaplin was sued for plagiarism by Tobis Films and investigated by the FBI for pro-communist links and possible funding. The situation worsened so much so that he was exiled from the US and spent his remaining years in Switzerland. However, experts believe that this was just an attempt to tarnish his reputation without just cause.

A self-described “Citizen of the World”, Charlie Chaplin through all this inspired a generation of people by acting as a source of entertainment which prevented suicides. He educated the masses through his films and set new precedents in film acting and direction. Indirectly, he is also responsible for the growth of the film industry during the stagnant Great Depression as people, irrespective of class and social system, bought a ticket to watch the “Tramp” perform.

Revered by respectable artists themselves, he created thousands of jobs through his films, did extensive philanthropy and is such an influence that no one can truly say they are unfamiliar with the man in baggy pants, oversized jacket, and with the trapezoid mustache.

He wanted to improve the world and his performance were not fabled simply by the costumes or the pantomimes, but it was the story and the inherent social message that he wished to promote to the world. His story of pauper-to-emperor has and will continue to inspire generations of people and his films will always act as a source of distraction on the gloomiest days like those of the Great Depression.          

[1] Amadeo, Kimberly. “What Happened During the Great Depression?” The Balance, The Balance, 11 Aug. 2017, www.thebalance.com/the-great-depression-of-1929-3306033.

[2] Mellen, Joan. “Toward Modern Times.” Modern Times, BFI, 2006, p. 33.

[3] Mellen, Joan. “Toward Modern Times.” Modern Times, BFI, 2006, p. 22.

[4] Mellen, Joan. “Towards Modern Times.” Modern Times, BFI, 2006, p. 24.

[5] Mellen, Joan. “The Film.” Modern Times, BFI, 2006, p. 56.

[6] Mellen, Joan. “The Film.” Modern Times, BFI, 2006, p. 46.

[7] Mellen, Joan. “The Film.” Modern Times, BFI, 2006, p. 59.

[8] Frater, Jamie. “Top 10 Evil Human Experiments.” Listverse, Listverse, 14 Mar. 2008, listverse.com/2008/03/14/top-10-evil-human-experiments/.

[9] Howe, Lawrence, et al. “American Masculinity and the Gendered Humor of Chaplin's Little Tramp.” Refocusing Chaplin: a Screen Icon through Critical Lenses, Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2013, p. 70.

[10] Howe, Lawrence, et al. “In The Shadow of Machines .” Refocusing Chaplin: a Screen Icon through Critical Lenses, Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2013, p. 96.

[11] Gehring, Wes D. “Chaplintis.” Charlie Chaplin, a Bio-Bibliography, Greenwood Press, 1983, p. 67.

[12] Robinson, David. “Opinion of the Thirties.” Chaplin, the Mirror of Opinion, Secker & Warburg, 1984, p. 98.

[13] “Everyday Life during the Depression.” Everyday Life, University of Washington, depts.washington.edu/depress/everyday_life.shtml.

[14] George, Susan. “What Is a Dramedy? - Times of India.” The Times of India, Home, 26 Dec. 2010, timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/What-is-a-dramedy/articleshow/7165525.cms. 

Earth-Based and Spacecraft observations of methane on Mars

Introduction

NASA Curiosity Rover has been active on the Martian surface since 2012 and was responsible for detecting spikes in methane around Gale Crater during its ascent of the Mount Sharp summit. Mars, a terrestrial (rocky) planet, has had a history of very low methane content in its atmosphere. However, over a period of 605 sols (Mars days), Curiosity (the NASA rover) recorded traces of methane gas by collecting air samples and separating the Carbon dioxide (CO2) from other constituents to derive pure methane (CH4), through a process called spectroscopy. Spectroscopy is passing visible light through gases so as to produce a specific spectral pattern used to identify the gas. After announcing this discovery at the Geophysical Union in San Francisco, it was found that methane is rare occurrence on terrestrial planets and rather is mostly found in gas giants like Jupiter, having formed billions of years ago. Seasonal changes in methane are very unique by researcher’s estimates. Methane is also often considered a reliable signal of life for its possible biological origins. Some of the areas of interest for methane samples include Nili Fosssae (hydrated mineral source) and Syrtis Major (substrates).

Air Samples

Mars contains 95.32% CO2 in its atmosphere with traces of other gases (O2 is just 0.13% and N2 is just 2.7%). With the absence of tectonic convection (layers of crust and mantle sliding over one another), MAVEN NASA probe has shown that the lack of friction prevented a magnetic field from shrouding Mars and this allowed the strong solar winds and cosmic rays to tear away whatever little atmosphere remained. With a short life-span for methane and without a continuous methane-cycle replenishing the CH4 like how it is done on Earth, the methane gas plumes detected could be assumed to be relatively recent. Instead of being sparsely dispersed, they are concentrated at certain crater/valleys and move faster than the rover does, hence making it difficult to record data. This suggests the simple idea: Mars is alive, either geologically or biologically.

Body

Parallels with Earth

In comparison to Mars’ tiny 0.4 ppbv (parts per billion volume), Earth has an overwhelming 1800 ppbv via a functioning methane cycle that replenishes the short-lived methane gas. Most common sources include rice stocks, termites, landfills and other biogas dumps, and ocean microbes. In these sources, anaerobic bacteria produce this methane through respiration without oxygen, producing methane rather than CO2. Biggest source, however, are the burning of fossil fuels. Most of these “natural processes are not possible on Mars which is what makes the gas’ presence so intriguing.

Sources on Mars

Methane was first discovered on Mars through ESA’s (European Space Agency) Mars Express. Ironically, most of the places on Mars where methane has been detected have had a history of presence of water in the past, possibly hinting to the biological origins of the gas so linked to life processes. Most researcher agree on the three-part hypothesis as possible sources of Methane. They are:

1. Biological Life

2. Chemical or Geological Occurrence

3. Random Outburst (meteor/comets/other unpredictable phenomenon)

The presence of microbes called “methanogens” on Mars could be a potential source for the gas through biological processes like those on Earth called, aptly in this case, “methanogenesis”. This theory is currently the most widely researched one among the three as it is exciting for scientists to discover the possibility of life.

In the past, there was an abundance of surface organics rich in Carbon (C). These, however, were broken down by UV (Ultra Violet) rays from the Sun and cosmic rays. Methane has the tendency to change into formaldehyde and methanol to eventually produce CO2, which could explain the 95% dominance today. There is still a lot of carbon and more is being produced daily, but the rate of CO2 production is slower.

Hydrothermal reactions with rocks like Olvine (igneous rocks) or pyroxene are chemical sources and sinks for methane. Through a process called serpentinisation, rocks rich in ferromagnesian (iron-magnesium) minerals react in low-temperature water to produce new types of rocks and release hydrogen as the end product. This hydrogen then reacts with carbon monoxide to eventually produce methane. Some of the CH4 gas produced can be stored as ice-crystals, acting as cages or aquifers sinks, called clathrate hydrates. The seasonal heat on Mars melts these crystals causing the methane gas to be produced in a sudden burst from underground gaps/zones.

Perchlorate deliquescence is another source where rocks containing perchlorate salts, found near Curiosity research sites, collect methane as dry salts which react with water (which acts as a catalyst), and expel methane gas. This occurs usually during high humidity periods in Martian winter.

Random outbursts like compressed CO2 gas combining with water under high temperatures and pressures, along with dust being spread by carbon-rich meteorites falling to the surface of Mars annually, could be also considered as possible sources of methane. 

Seasonal Spikes

The release of methane happens in a cyclical method on mars, described as almost seasonal. Life on Earth is seasonal, and this only strengthens the hypothesis that the methane comes from biological sources. However, in addition to sources discussed earlier, the sources for CH4 could be more localized.

Dust Devils (strong, sustained whirlwinds averaging 60 mph) on the surface produce static electric fields that acts as a sanitizing agent in the form of Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2). This breaks down organic minerals and produces methane gas.

In the case of comets and meteors, scientists suggest the interplanetary rocks would have to be several meters across to bring in sufficient amounts of carbon and hence upon impact should leave noticeable craters. However, the abundance of craters was unfound. In addition, there is a sheer lack of evidence for volcanic activity in being a possible source for the methane due to absence of tectonic convection. 

According to discoveries through Curiosity’s Tunable Laser Spectrometer (TAS/TLS), intense light was used to carry out chemical analysis test to produce spectrums and identify elements. A lack of methane was recorded over a period of two months. Surprisingly, soon Curiosity showed a spike of methane from a mere 0.7 ppbv (parts per billion volume) to 7 ppbv, a staggering ten-times (1000%) increase. Most of the spikes that occurred were about 200-300 meters from each other and within a kilometer radius of other generally low readings.

In Mars’ past, there was the possibility of abundant water which could have sustained life because the current concentration of CO2 cannot explain the continual warming of the planet since its long ago “ice-age” where polar caps dominated much of the northern hemisphere. Only a greenhouse gas like methane which has a history of trapping extreme heat could be the hypothetical perpetrator for the noted rises in temperature. 

SAM and TLS

The Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM), operated by NASA has three parts to it: spectrometer to measure mass, chromatograph to identify and segregate gases, and TLS (Tunable laser spectrometer). Although it also records minor changes in other life-related gases like Nitrogen (N2) and Oxygen (O2), the TLS mainly records changes in methane for sites with maintained temperature and pressure zones. The instrument absorbs some of the untouched Martian air into a cup-shaped container the size of a coffee mug. Firing an Infrared (IR) beam through the gas to see how much of it is absorbed. This produces an absorption spectra and scans the different uniquely identifying patterns to detect traces of methane. The TLS is very precise and conducts experiments on oxygen and chemical isotopes in carbon-rich gases to judge the gases’ origins.

The TLS is extremely sensitive and can detect methane and water vapor to single-digit ppbv quantities. To further improve the sensitivity, the air is consumed slowly by SAM and passed through a rough CO2 filter to extract the carbon dioxide and separately collect methane gas, making it unmistakably detectable. In the past, the TLS has been used here on Earth to measure chlorine deposits in the ozone layer, and methane composition in different locations, and it was this proven effectiveness that helped inspire NASA scientists to use the same technology for Mars.

MAVEN

The Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution mission (MAVEN) entered Mars orbit in 2014 and since then has been assigned to study the magnesium ions in the planetary atmosphere in relation to its interactions with solar winds. It has found that a lot of gases, like CO2, H2 and N2, have escaped from the exosphere into outer space and using this information, MAVEN hopes to reveal Mars’ potential biological past. 

Results from MAVEN have shown that once upon a time, Mars used to have a thriving atmosphere which stored CO2 and helped in sustained warming of the planet. However, coming back to present day, we can see that the lack of atmosphere meant the sun’s warmth couldn’t be retained on the surface and hence cause Mars to become dry, dead, and fossilized today. Reasons for this can also include kinetic motion of excited ions pushing other ions out of the atmosphere, UV rays breaking down gases like CO2 and methane.

Curiosity Error

There have been a lot of debates questioning the legitimacy of the sources of methane detected on Mars. Some researchers believe that the supposedly “microbial methane” was actually from earth microbes that the rover got contaminated by when it launched. The microbes having survived the space journey, are currently making the gas detected gas. There could be some trapped methane in the SAM and TLS antechamber from Florida (launch site) which could fudge the results and hence give wrong indications.

According to NASA, when the SAM was first switched on, there was a sudden spike in methane readings, and they concluded that this air was that of Earth, and dismissed these skewed readings.

Nevertheless, Curiosity, as a mission, was never designed to search for microbial life through imaging, sampling fossils and experimenting generic metabolic reactions to study life and hence a recommendation from me would be that NASA should send a specific mission target on biological analysis, or perhaps conduct a collaborate private-public mission to Mars.

Conclusion

ExoMars TGO

European Space Agency (ESA) launched the Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) in 2016 with the sole purpose of collecting methane and other trace gas samples as a possible arrow towards presence of life on Mars and could be considered to set the precedence for future missions through ESA. A massive new drill, advance equipment and demonstrator modules like the Schiaparelli EDM (for entry into atmosphere and landing on Martian surface), will help tackle inconclusive reading of methane releases to greater accuracy at targeted/specific Martian hotspots. It hopes to better understand Mars, its history and the potential for microbial life on the red planet.

SpaceX and methane

SpaceX, for its future missions, plans to use Martian methane, in an engine called Raptor, as a propellant for its rockets to minimize costs, store efficiently. Instead of carrying return fuel to mars and having extra weight (which in-turn leads to greater fuel consumption and creates a vicious cycle), this is better. Using an abundant ice reserves in the polar caps and CO2 in the air, Elon Musk hopes to generate the methane-fuel using solar energy. Although work is yet to begin on these propellant manufacturing stations, it might just be possible.

Mars 2020

Mars has planned to launch a new biologically-focused mission to Mars by 2020. This rover will carry seven new instruments including a radar system to detect underground ice and water deposits along with a laser that detects carbon atoms specifically. There will be a staggering 23 cameras with lasers to vaporize rocks and extract minerals from them. It will also have a rock storage system for future analysis with improved drilling equipment, efficiency in power usage, coupled with advanced spectrometers. In summary, the Mars 2020 project is designed to find evidence for microbial life, research the habitability, and help eventually advance the possibility of human settlement on the red planet.

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